As Nigeria basks in the euphoria of ‘change’, Assistant Politics Editor, DANIEL KANU, reviews the different administrations in the country since Independence.
With Muhammadu Buhari’s successful inauguration last Friday as Nigeria’s fourth consecutive president since 1999, the country seems to have stabilised on the path of democratic culture. Though the leadership of the defeated Peoples Democratic Party (PDP) and critics insist that the March 28, 2015 election that produced Buhari and his All Progressives Congress (APC) was fraught with irregularities, the outcome tended to tally with the expectation of many Nigerians.
More than this, however, the Buhari presidency marks a major shift in the country’s transition history, given that it was the first time power was transferred from the ruling party to the opposition. PDP had held the reins since the onset of the current dispensation in 1999.
Given the gloomy prediction that had preceded the March 28 and April 11 general elections, many see the eventual turn of events as a great feat by a country that had almost been written off by a section of the citizenry and international community. Analysts thus enthuse at the new order, which may serve as a beacon in taking the country on the path of standard practice.
In the beginning
Since 1914 when the hitherto distinct North and South were formally amalgamated in the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria by Lord Frederick Lugard, a British colonial officer, acting on the imperial orders of his principals in London, the country has gone through many transitions in its pursuit in nation building and democratisation.
On October 1, 1954, the colony became the autonomous federation of Nigeria.
As a result of the great wave of independence that was sweeping across Africa at the time, on October 27, 1958, Britain agreed that Nigeria would become an independent state on October 1, 1960.
Nigeria gains independence
The country was then granted full independence on October 1, 1960, a day the Union Jack (British flag) was lowered, while the Nigerian green and white flag was hoisted. Those that witnessed the colourful occasion still find it difficult to explain their euphoria at the event.
The emerging administration took the form of British Westminster parliamentary pattern. The then existing political parties, however, tended to reflect the make-up of the three main ethnic groups. The Nigerian Peoples Congress (NPC) represented conservative Muslim, largely Hausa and Fulani interests that dominated the Northern Region; National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC), represented the interests of the Igbo and Christian-dominated people of the Eastern Region; while the Action Group (AG) was a left-leaning party that represented the interests of the Yoruba people in the West.
With the 1959 elections, first post-Independence national government was formed by a conservative alliance of the NCNC and the NPC while AG became the opposition under its leader, Obafemi Awolowo.
First Republic
In October 1963, Nigeria became a republic, with the former Governor-General, Nnamdi Azikiwe, as the country’s first President and Tafawa Balewa as Prime Minister. From the outset, Nigeria’s ethnic and religious tensions were magnified by the disparities in economic and educational development between the South and the North. The AG was schemed out of control of the Western Region by the federal government and a new pro-government Yoruba party, the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP), took over.
The 1965 national election produced a major re-alignment of politics and a disputed result that set the country on the path to civil chaos.
The dominant NPC went into a conservative alliance with the NNDP, leaving the Igbo NCNC to coalesce with the remnants of the AG in a progressive alliance. In the vote, widespread electoral fraud was alleged and riots erupted in the Yoruba West where heartlands of the AG discovered they had apparently elected pro-government NNDP representatives.
The curtain falls
The events that would start the tragic course of Nigeria occurred on January 15, 1966 when military officers, accused of being driven by inordinate ambition, seized power in a bloody coup against a democratically-elected government.
It was a coup that toppled the government of Balewa, with the soldiers claiming that the action was taken to save the nation from descending into lawlessness and to stamp out the large-scale corruption perpetrated by the political class.
Both the central government and the regional administration were ousted and the constitution of federal and regional autonomies abrogated.
The military government then appointed officers to administer the states and proceeded to rule the country by military decrees. With military intervention came various forms of rapid instability, as other opportunistic army officers staged coups and counter-coups.
Enter Ironsi
The bloody nature of the young Majors’ coup created confusion in the land that necessitated the intervention of the then Chief of Army Staff, General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi. The federal military government that assumed power under Ironsi was said to be unable to calm ethnic tensions that had heated up the polity.
The administration was also accused of not producing a constitution acceptable to all sections of the country. One of the greatest undoings of the Ironsi government was the decision to issue Decree 34 which sought to unify the nation. The North kicked against the move and riot broke out.
The Gowon years
The efforts to abolish the federal structure on May 24, 1966 raised tensions and led to another coup by largely Northern officers in July 1966, which established the leadership of the Colonel Yakubu Gowon.
The subsequent massacre of thousands of Igbo in the North prompted hundreds of thousands of them to return to the South East where increasingly strong Igbo self-determination sentiment emerged.
In a move towards greater autonomy to minority ethnic groups, and obviously to break the emerging Biafra sentiment, the military under Gowon divided the existing regions into 12 states. The Igbo however insisted on full autonomy for the South East.
The Eastern demand
On May 29, 1967, Lt. Col. Emeka Ojukwu, the military governor of the Eastern Region, who emerged as the leader of increasing Igbo self-determination sentiment, declared the independence of the Eastern Region as the Republic of Biafra on May 30, 1967.
The declaration led to the Nigeria-Biafra civil war that lasted for 30 months with Gowon’s famous “No victor, no vanquished” speech in 1970. Five years later, it was apparent that the Gowon administration had no agenda at returning the country to civilian rule. This, on the surface, was the reason it was toppled.
Murtala steps in
On July 29, 1975, Gen. Murtala Mohammed and a group of officers staged a bloodless coup, accusing Gowon of corruption and delaying the promised return to civilian rule.
Murtala replaced thousands of civil servants and announced a timetable for the resumption of civilian rule by October 1, 1979. He was assassinated on February 13, 1976 in an abortive coup and his Chief of Staff, Supreme Headquarters, Lt. Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo, became head of state.
Obasanjo takes charge
With the death of Murtala, Obasanjo took over the clutches of power and made remarkable achievements which included improvement in education, through the Universal Primary Education (UPE) policy. There were attempts to expand the country’s industrial base with huge revenues from the oil boom at the time, in addition to the Operation Feed the Nation (OFN), a programme designed to encourage farmers in the country. The regime also achieved a commendable reform of the local government system.
The administration equally supervised the writing of the 1979 Constitution, which was patterned after the United States constitution. It is also the first military junta in Africa to hand over power to a civilian government – in 1979.
Shagari’s Second Republic
A Constituent Assembly was elected in 1977 to draft a new constitution, which was published on September 21, 1978, when the ban on political activity was lifted. In 1979, five political parties competed in a series of elections in which Shehu Shagari of the National Party of Nigeria (NPN) was elected president. All five parties won representation in the National Assembly.
In August 1983, Shagari and the NPN were returned to power in a controversial victory with a majority of seats in the National Assembly and control of 12 state governments. The elections were marred by violence and allegations of widespread vote rigging and electoral malfeasance, leading to legal battles over the results.
Buhari strikes
It was the putsch of December 31, 1983 that brought in the Generals Muhammadu Buhari/Tunde Idiagbon regime. Buhari was Head of State and leader of the Supreme Military Council (SMC), the ruling body, while Idiagbon was appointed Chief of Staff, Supreme Headquarters.
The administration justified the military’s seizure of power from Shagari by castigating the civilian government as hopelessly corrupt. It promptly embarked on many drastic policies aimed at bringing sanity into the system. Prominent among measures was War Against Indiscipline (WAI), which restored orderliness in public life and dedication to public services.
But overall, the regime instilled some elements of discipline and patriotism in the populace before it was overthrown on August 27, 1985.
Babangida’s palace coup
General Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida (IBB), the Chief of Army Staff, curiously overthrew Buhari government in what was aptly referred to as a palace coup.
Babangida, who assumed an unusual title of ‘military president’, cited the misuse of power, violations of human rights by key officers of the Buhari administration, and the government’s failure to deal with the country’s deepening economic crisis, as justifications for the take-over. As part of a 15-month economic emergency plan, he announced pay cuts for the military, police, civil servants and the private sector.
Babangida demonstrated his intent to encourage public participation in decision-making by opening a national debate on proposed economic reform and recovery measures. The public response showed intense opposition to the economic recession policy.
The gap-toothed General, nicknamed ‘Maradona’, promised to return the country to civilian rule by 1990 which was later pushed to January 1993. Earlier in October 1989, the government had established two parties, the National Republican Convention (NRC) and the Social Democratic Party (SDP).
In April 1990, mid-level officers attempted unsuccessfully to overthrow the government and 69 accused plotters were executed after secret trials before military tribunals.
In December 1990, the first stage of partisan elections was held at the local government level. Despite low turnout, there was no violence and both parties demonstrated strength in all regions of the country, with the SDP winning control of a majority of local government councils.
In December 1991, state legislative elections were held and Babangida decreed that previously banned politicians could contest in primaries scheduled for August.
The presidential election was finally held on June 12, 1993, with the inauguration of the new president scheduled to take place on August 27, 1993, the eighth anniversary of President Babangida’s assumption of power.
In the historic June 12 presidential elections, which most observers deemed to be Nigeria’s freest and fairest, early returns indicated that wealthy Yoruba businessman, Moshood Abiola (MKO), won a decisive victory. On June 23, Babangida, citing several pending lawsuits, annulled the election.
Many lost their lives in intense riots before Babangida was forced to “step aside” and hand power to an interim national government on August 27, 1993.
Shonekan toys with power
Ernest Shonekan was a prominent non-partisan businessman. He was to rule until elections scheduled for February 1994.
Although he had led Babangida’s Transitional Council since 1993, Shonekan was unable to reverse Nigeria’s economic problems or to defuse lingering political tension. The country was degenerating into anarchy until Defence Minister, Sani Abacha, seized power from him.
Abacha mounts the rostrum
With the country sliding into chaos, Abacha assumed power and forced Shonekan’s resignation on November 17, 1993. Abacha dissolved all democratic institutions and replaced elected governors with military officers. Although promising restoration of civilian rule, he refused to announce a transitional timetable until 1995. Following the annulment of the June 12 election, the United States and others imposed sanctions on Nigeria, including travel restrictions on government officials and suspension of arms sales and military assistance. Additional sanctions were imposed as a result of Nigeria’s failure to gain full certification for its counter-narcotics efforts.
Opposition leaders formed the National Democratic Coalition (NADECO), which campaigned to reconvene the Senate and other disbanded democratic institutions.
On June 11, 1994 Abiola declared himself president and went into hiding until his arrest on June 23. In response, petroleum workers called a strike demanding the release of Abiola by Abacha and hand over power to him. Other unions joined the strike, bringing economic life to a standstill.
The government alleged in early 1995 that military officers and civilians were engaged in a coup plot. Security officers rounded up the accused, including Obasanjo and his deputy, Shehu Musa Yar’Adua (of blessed memory). After a secret tribunal sitting, most of the accused were convicted and several death sentences were handed down to them.
On October 1, 1995 Abacha announced the timetable for a three-year transition to civilian rule. Only five political parties were approved by the regime and voter turnout for local elections in December 1997 was less than 10 per cent. Abacha later died in mysterious circumstances on June 8, 1998.
Abubakar unfolds transition agenda
The late Abacha was replaced by General Abdulsalami Abubakar. The military Provisional Ruling Council (PRC) under Abubakar commuted the sentences of those accused in the alleged coup during the Abacha regime and released almost all known civilian political detainees. Pending the promulgation of the constitution written in 1995, the government observed some provisions of the 1979 and 1989 constitutions.
Abiola later died in detention during the regime of Abubakar, putting to an end a struggle for the validation of his mandate.
In August 1998, Abubakar appointed the National Electoral Commission (NEC) to conduct elections for local government councils, state legislature and governors, the National Assembly, and president. NEC successfully held elections on December 5, 1998 for local government chairmanship; January 9, 1999 (governorship); February 20 (House of Assembly and National Assembly), and February 27 (presidency). Three parties that qualified for the election were the Peoples Democratic Party (PDP), the All Peoples Party (APP) and the Alliance for Democracy (AD). Obasanjo, freed from prison by Abubakar, ran as presidential candidate of PDP and won the election.
Return of Obasanjo
The emergence of democracy in Nigeria on May 1999 ended 16 years of consecutive military rule. Obasanjo inherited a country bogged by economic stagnation and the deterioration of most democratic institutions.
The new president took over a country that faced many problems, including a dysfunctional bureaucracy, collapsed infrastructure, and a military that wanted a reward for returning quietly to the barracks. He did his two-term tenure and lifted Nigeria higher in international rating.
Yar’Adua becomes president
In the 2007 general election, Umaru Yar’Adua of the PDP was elected president with Goodluck Jonathan as his vice.
Yar’Adua’s presidency was fraught with uncertainty, as media reports claimed that he suffered from kidney and heart disease.
Incidentally, the government had seven-point agenda to transform the country, but could not achieve them before he died in office on May 5, 2010.
Nevertheless, he was able to stop the militancy in the Niger Delta region by granting amnesty to the militants, after the latter had laid down their arms.
Jonathan takes over
Relying on the so-called doctrine of necessity by the National Assembly on account of Yar’Adua’s ailment, in February 2010, Jonathan began serving as acting president. Following the death of Yar’Adua, he became president on May 6. By April 2011, he stood for election, polling 22 million votes to beat Buhari of Congress for Progressive Change (CPC), his closest rival, who scored 12 million votes.
Buhari returns
Jonathan’s re-election bid in 2015 was however truncated by Buhari who won in the March 28 presidential election. Buhari, who was sworn in last Friday, has promised that Nigeria will rise again. Nigerians will hold him on that.
Nigeria’s leaders since Independence
1) October 1960 – January 1966: Tafawa Balewa (Prime Minister)
2) January 1966 – July 1966: Thomas Aguiyi-Ironsi (Head of State)
3) July 1966 – July 1975: Yakubu Gowon (Head of State)
4) July 1975 – February 1976. Murtala Muhammed (Head of State)
5) February 1976 – October 1979: Olusegun Obasanjo (Head of State)
6) October 1979 – December 1983: Shehu Shagari (President)
7) December 1983 – August 1985: Muhammadu Buhari (Head of State);
8) August 1985 – August 1993: Ibrahim Babangida (Head of State);
9) August 1993 – November 1993. Ernest Shonekan (Head of Interim National Government)
10) November 1993 – June 1998: Sani Abacha (Head of State);
11) June 1998 – May 1999: Abdulsalami Abubakar (Head of State);
12) May 1999 – May 2007: Olusegun Obasanjo (President)
13) May 2007 – May 2010: Umaru Yar’Adua (President)
14) May 2010 – May 29, 2015: Goodluck Jonathan (President)
15) May 29, 2015 – Till date: Muhammadu Buhari (President)